Critical Discussion: The Historical and Contemporary Uses and Notions of “Race”

Abstract This paper deals with the historical and contemporary uses and notions of the term ‘race’. The discussion is based on the dismissal of most contemporary scholars of the notion of ‘race; based on 19th century scientific taxonomies. Historically, the term has been intertwined with the notions of class, people, nation, etc. and is closely related to the concepts of ‘lineage,’ ‘caste’, etc. The term is also used to denote a biological idea, which evolved to mean human physical variations, ethnic identities, human genetics, and racist ideologies. The contemporary use of ‘race’ is focused on the integration and socialisation or re-socialisation of people with other groups of different origin with whom they identify, regardless of age, gender, ethnic identities, religion, etc. Introduction This brief aim to discuss critically the historical and contemporary use(s) and notions of the term ‘race’, taking into account that most contemporary scholars dismiss the notion of ‘race’, as exemplified by the 19th century scientific taxonomies. According to Donald and Rattansi (2005), ‘race’ refers to social meanings characterised by instability and decentralised ideas, with occurrences of constant transformations from political struggle. Montagu (1997), on the other hand, has referred to it as the most dangerous myth, indicating the relevance of the needed work for this concept. He further surmises that ‘black’ and ‘white’ must no longer be used to describe society or certain groups of people. The existence of race is said to be an experience rather than an imagined or even real phenotype (qualities produced by the effect of environment on genes). Montagu states that the reason why the feeling of ‘race’ is sustained is because of the geographic segregation of people on the levels of community, society, and world-systems. The historical and contemporary use(s) and notions of the term ‘race’ are discussed below. Historical Uses and Notions of ‘Race’ In its original conception, ‘race’ pertains to a group of people with common descent and is closely related to the concepts of ‘caste’, ‘lineage’, etc. ‘Race’ has been used to differentiate people of color and Caucasian ones to reflect the construction of classes, which embody very detailed classifications. It has been presented to conduct a systematic analysis of theoretical problems and political ideas (specifically ‘race’ ideas) and the contributions of these ideas to the formation of communities and race-state interrelationships (e.g. Donald and Rattansi, 2005). Voegelin (1998) states that the study of the notion of ‘race’ has spanned a period of around a century and a half, beginning from the late 17th century to mid-19th century and claims that the development of modern history serves as the context for the emergence of the notion of ‘race’. Historically, the notion of ‘race’ is one that interweaved with the concepts of class, nation, people, ethnic group, and the like, and is expressed through its diverse use, such as in the depiction of ‘human race,’ superior race,’ English race,’ etc. ‘Race’ has appeared in southwestern European languages (Spanish, Portuguese, Italian) and has likewise been used widely amongst European countries (England, France) (Llobera, 2003). It has already existed in earlier periods of history and in different cultures. In fact a strong link was demonstrated between the European slave trade and the rise of racism in the West; however, Llobera (2003) claims that slavery is not a sufficient explanation for the existence of racism during this period. The notion of ‘race’ had already existed amongst Greeks and Romans during the ancient period, as they distinguished whites from blacks. However, such distinction did not bear any signifi cant social or cultural impact (Llobera, 2003), indicating the difference with how it was classically perceived and how it was perceived in its later notions, such as the 19th century scientific taxonomies. From the 14th century to the mid-17th century, the definition of ‘race’ altered the expression of kinship relationships and genealogy towards an emphasis on physical appearance and skin colour. These multiple understandings of the notion of ‘race’ can be summed up as being associated with a transitional period during which a move took place from a definition of ethnicity in which several definitions co-existed with a monolithic modern concept of race. During the renaissance period, the use of ‘race’ was used to denote bloodlines or lineage, such as the concept of a royal bloodline. In addition, religious conversions were able to transform blood identity; for example, a Christian who was a pagan by birth obtained a new racial identity upon conversion to Christianity (Spiller, 2011). Indeed, as have been clarified by many scholars (e.g. Spencer, 2006; James, 2011), the historical notions of ‘race’ in the early modern era is character ised by overlapping and even opposing concepts of religion and ethnicity. Historic events such as the slave trade and ‘scientific racialism’ (Spiller, 2011:2) clearly seem to have changed European attitudes toward race and identity. Ethnic identities have been used to understand the initial modern notions of ‘race’ (Spiller, 2011). In the mid-18th century, increasing knowledge of the different appearances of the human being ensued, so that ‘race’ began to be understood in terms of human physical variations. As such, human beings (in the variety of physical forms the human body takes) were seen as parts within a larger systematic structure, which is nature (Voegelin, 1998). It must be noted that as early as the 15th century, biological unity has already been assumed in the notion of ‘race’, as seen in the expression ‘unity of blood’ in the Iberian Peninsula (Llobera, 2003). In the 20th century, specifically when the Nazi regime came to existence, the notion of ‘race’ has been presented as an extremely controversial term. It includes a range of situations affirming the superiority of one ‘race’ over another. Due to its link to extremely negative moral issues, the word ‘racism’ elicits abuse and must be used with appropriate caution (Llobera, 2003). One can therefore see here that ‘race’ has transformed gradually from one that depicts the classification of classes, ethnicity, religion, etc. to one that functions as a device to evaluate superiority and inferiority. The notion of race is influenced by suggestions that it should be understood not as a reflection of biological fact but as a reflection of prevailing racist ideologies (e.g. Ferguson, 2013; Beidler and Taylor, 2005). A worthy argument is that if ‘race’ originates as a category that provides hierarchical privileges to a ruling status, thereby making other groups inferior, then those considered inferior, such as people of colour, are apparently pushed into this derogation (Beidler and Taylor, 2005). Contemporary Uses and Notions of ‘Race’ The uses and notions of ‘race’ have trailed a different direction in the contemporary understanding of the term. The change in the concept is illustrated in Korean children who grew up in largely black and Latino communities in Los Angeles and who had more in common with their black and Latino peers than with other Korean students. The same is seen amongst black suburban children in largely white communities who have identified more with the cultural values of their white peer group than with their ethnic brothers and sisters (Montagu, 1997). Despite their different phenotypical characteristics, people can assume the identity of another group (‘race’) through socialisation and re-socialisation. This is contrary to the historical notion of ‘race’, which dealt largely with bloodlines or lineage, or with biological components, or with the perception of superiority and inferiority (e.g. Llobera, 2003; and Spiller, 2011). ‘Race’ is called an ‘experience’ in its contemporary use because of the increasing multi-racial movement worldwide that depicts its existence (Tattersall and DeSalle, 2011). For example, a growing number or Americans have insisted on being regarded as belonging to more than one ‘race’ and maintain their public and private transnational identities. These movements are a reminder that single racialised categories only oversimplify the complexities of culture and ethnicity (Montagu, 1997). According to Donald and Rattansi (2005), when issues of age, gender, class, and religion are made to integrate to culture, ethnicity, and multiculturalism, a realisation that would ensue is that the extent of single-race categorisation (being a dangerous myth) will promote disparaging prejudgments that attach irrelevant distinctions on people. Apparently, this argument is parallel to the idea that it is through socialisation and re-socialisation with different gr oups that people can assume a new ‘race’ or a new identity (Montagu, 1997). Montagu (1997) presents the United States as one that brings the notion of ‘race’ as an increasingly dysfunctional way to distinguish human beings. This is because of the presence of economic, political, and demographic factors that demand people to become competent interculturally (e.g. Donald and Rattansi, 2005). This propensity for intercultural competence blurs the distinction of people based on skin colour and other forms of identity. This is parallel to recognising the cultural and social integration of people of various origins as the new way of their cultural and social belongingness (e.g. Llobera, 2003; Spiller, 2011). Whitmarsh and Jones (2010) suggest that race and ethnicity function as categories of racial relationships, such as certain racial dualities where fine skin colour distinctions are dominant. Anthropological research (e.g. Whitmarsh and Jones, 2010) reveals that ethnic identities are incongruous and numerous in ways that cannot be reduced to racial classifications. Racial and ethnic categorisations are arbitrarily interwoven with gender and class in various discourses. These contemporary uses of ‘race’ have produced overwhelming accounts of racial disparities, ranging from income, education, punishment, medical treatment, and so on, thereby leading some theorists to suggest that the notion of ‘race’ needs to be understood in the context of the related notion of social justice (Whitmarsh and Jones, 2010). This is contrary to the use of ‘race’ as an outcome of socialisation and re-socialisation to a new culture, which Llobera, (2003) has earlier described. In Lively and Weaver‘s (2006) view, however, racial classifications (without regard to their purpose) tend to stigmatise. Despite efforts to correct the past, notions of racial inferiority may still be present, thereby leading to a politics of racial hostility. However, the current ways to discuss the notion of ‘race’ are through remnants of earlier ways of understanding this concept, making it easy to understand contemporary discussions about itself as a pale reflection of its more vigorous discourse (Ernest, 2009). Understanding ‘race’ would inform of the fact that there are only trivial physical and biological differences between groups referred to as ‘races.’ There is no convincing empirical case that allows the ascription of common intellectual, psychological, or moral characteristics to individuals based on skin colour. There is certainly no good ethical case to serve as a justification of inequitable treatment on such illogical basis (e.g. Montagu, 1997). This is seen in the current understanding of this concept based on people’s integration to a different social and/or cultural group, with whom they identify. It has been broadly acknowledged that problematic stances can ensue if the contemporary notions of â€Å"race† are applied to the early modern period. This is the reason why the term is usually enclosed with quotation marks and is highlighted by qualifications (e.g. Beidler and Taylor, 2005). Conclusion This paper has provided a critical discussion of the historical and contemporary uses and notions of ‘race’. The term is characterised by unstable and centralised social meanings, within which constant transformations frequently occur. An examination of 19th-century iconography revealed that the historical notion of ‘race’ reflect the construction of classes. The Renaissance era indicated bloodlines or lineage for the term ‘race.’ Religion and ethnicity also characterised the historical notions of ‘race’ in the early modern period. The modern era, on the other hand, saw the development of this notion as one that originates from the human genetic diversity paradigm to the typological racial model. ‘Race’ as an experience is demonstrated in today’s increasing multi-racial movement in various parts of the world. Disparaging prejudgments that attach irrelevant distinctions on people would be the result of the integration between issues of gender, age, class, and religion on one hand, and culture, ethnicity, and multiculturalism on the other. ‘Race’ is a dysfunctional way to distinguish people because of the presence of economic, political, and demographic aspects that require them to develop intercultural competences. Moreover, the contemporary notion of ’race’ indicates that there is no convincing empirical and ethical case that justifies ascription of certain qualities to some individuals and treat them inequitably as a result. ‘Race’, in its contemporary use, can mean a result of socialisation and re-socialisation of people with other groups with whom they identify, regardless of age, gender, ethnic identities, and the like. References Beidler, P. D. and Taylor, G. (2005) Writing Race Across the Atlantic World: Medieval to Modern. NY: Palgrave MacMillan. Donald, J. and Rattansi, A. (2005) Race, Culture and Difference. London: The Open University. Ernest, J. (2009) Chaotic Justice: Rethinking African American Literary History. North Carolina: The University of North Carolina Press. Ferguson, M. (2013) ‘Aphra Behn’s Oroonoko’ in M. Hendricks and P. Parker (eds.) Women. â€Å"Race,† and Writing in the Early Modern Period. NY: Routledge. James, P. (2011) Religion, Identity, and Global Governance: Ideas, Evidence and Practice. Toronto: University of Toronto Press Incorporated. Lively, D. E. and Weaver, R. L. (2006) Contemporary Supreme Court Cases. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. Llobera, J. R. (2003) An Invitation to Anthropology: The Structure, Evolution, and Cultural Identity of Human Societies. NY: Berghahn Books. Montagu, A. (1997) Man’s Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race. CA: Altamira Press. Spencer, S. (2006) Race and Ethnicity: Culture, Identity and Representation. NY: Routledge. Spiller, E. (2011) Reading and the History of Race in the Renaissance. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Tattersall, I. and DeSalle, R. (2011) RaceDebunking a Scientific Myth. First Edition. Texas: Texas A&M University Press. Voegelin, E. (1998) The History of the Race Idea: From Ray to Carus, Volume 3. Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press. Whitmarsh, I. and Jones, D. S. (2010) ‘Governance and the uses of race’. In I. Whitmarsh and D. S. Jones (eds.) What’s the Use of RaceModern Governance and the Biology of Difference. Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Proposal for a Health Education Programme Essay

Proposal for a Health Education Programme - Essay Example Moreover, the primary health care related knowledge has also been playing a significant role for maintaining good and proper health for small children. Contextually, learning regarding baby health care educations is also a significant factor that needs to be evaluated in this context (Nutbeam, 2006). In this regard, the health literacy is recognised to be a new concept for the people belonging from the modern era. It can be stated that education related to the baby health care is recognised to be important social determinant, which can work a crises management for maintaining infant healthier. It will be worth mentioning that the education in baby health care will be helpful towards ensuring a better health of new born babies as well as small babies. Moreover, baby health care related education is deemed to be useful in facilitating better skilled person for proving support during the any emergency to its family members. It will be worth mentioning that people should attend any heath care programmes for developing their knowledge related to baby health care facilities (Higgins & et. al., 2008). The principle objective of the proposed study is to prepare children health care programme plan especially for the parents, which will provide a systematic overview related to baby health care education. The proposed study primarily focuses upon organising the health education programmes especially for young parents and their children. In this regard, the study will also depict concern regarding the preparation of children health care programmes, which includes various sessions that can promote medical knowledge of young parents. Health education refers to a particular program that is deemed to be mainly responsible for promoting healthy living standard of people. The paper is concentrated over providing baby health care educational programmes to the parents of new born babies. The proposed study include certain objectives which are provided in

Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 20

Case Study - Essay Example The term Sony’s DNA also indicates the company’s unusual skill for product design and outstanding marketing tactics. This extraordinary flair for design and marketing is the key factor of its dominance in international markets. The major challenge that Sony confronted with achieving synergy was the issue related to its internal convergence. The corporation was unsure how it could achieve seamless cooperation between its subsidiary companies by selling the network vision. In addition, ‘there was little corporation between the content people in the United States and the technical wizards in Japan’. The production units like the Play Station had been enjoying exceed independence by working outside the company’s mainstream and by initiating alliance with other parties. It is uncertain if sonny can endure with this sort of ‘luxury’ in future namely in its innovative processes. Another major problem was the threat from low-cost imitators who already had pirated its content business. As compared to other competitors, Sony had to be highly concerned about factors associated with its copyright. As one of the notable challenges, Sony had been limited access to TV broadcast in USA. Th ey also lacked synergy between hardware and content side of business. Finally, Sony did not have substantial share in mobile industry. Reorganization might be the possible solution to meet these challenges in future. Sony has already identified this factor; and the organization has entered the world of digital convergence. Instead of traditional mode of management, it depends on outsourcing feasibility which allows broad and collaborative knowledge sharing and problem solving. Sony’s cooperation with Intel and Microsoft is an example for this conceptual change. Although this trend of convergence was unfamiliar to Sony, recently it has altered its tactics especially in case of product

Interpretative Phenomenological Approach Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Interpretative Phenomenological Approach - Essay Example They found that interactive environmental activities in an outdoor programme had a significant impact on attitudes and that passive instruction had little impact on retention of knowledge. A scale of this type consists of a series of bipolar adjective pairs (e.g. good-bad, beneficial-harmful) listed on opposite sides of a page, with seven spaces in between. The attitude object is identified at the top of the scale and may be a word, statement or picture. The respondent is instructed to evaluate the attitude object by placing a mark in one of the seven spaces between each adjective pair. Development of semantic differential scales stems from the use of theory of reasoned action to investigate science-related attitudes. This is particularly important in the field of Psychology education where behaviour is a clear objective. In their theory, suggest that attitude measures should focus on a person's attitude toward behaviour rather than on the person's attitude toward particular objects. That is, instead of asking about students' attitudes towards the r researchers should assess their attitudes toward learning about the experience. This method is called the Interpretative Phenomenological Method, which is the approach used in this study in analysing the experience of Zoe, a teenager who has been adopted by a family. Interpretative Phenomenological Approach is a method which is considered as consonant with the picture presented above is introduced. Interpretative phenomenological analysis is a method which attempts to tap into a natural propensity for self-reflection on the part of participants (Abraham and Sheeran, 2001). Obviously the degree to which individuals are used to expressing such reflections, orally or in writing, can vary and some people need more encouraging and facilitating than others. But a central premise of the method is allowing participants to tell their own story, in their own words, about the topic under investigation. However, research is not a simple, singular process and the original account from the participant in the form of an interview transcript or diary entry, for example, then needs to be analysed closely by the investigator. Interpretative phenomenological analysis is about attempting to discover meanings, not eliciting facts, but trying to find out what a person's health condition means to them requires considerable interpretative work on the part of the researcher (Abramson et al., 2003). The resultant analytic account can therefore be said to be the joint product of the reflection by both participant and researcher. This study will provide a brief theoretical contextualisation for interpretative phenomenological analysis and then argues for the particular relevance it has for health psychology. It is worth pointing out that this approach aims to have a dialogue with, and to help enlarge, the discipline of psychology not to attack or stand outside it. As will become apparent, interpretative phenomenological analysis can make a valuable contribution in enriching the way mainstream psychology conceives of the individual's experience of adoption. Method The interpretative phenomenological analysis applied to the social psychology as an application to the study on the experience of the subject Zoe as an adopted in a family. The first example is from a study examining how Zoe feels of him being adopted. The project involves analysis of long semi-structured interviews with Zoe. Because the study is

Does management have responsibility to provide job satisfaction to its Research Paper

Does management have responsibility to provide job satisfaction to its employees - Research Paper Example Maslows theory further explains that the low need level of needs need to be satisfied in order to avoid unpleasant consequences (Aziri, 2011). Some of these needs are food, sleep, warmth and other basic needs. For employers to meet these needs, they might probably provide food in the office to avoid unnecessary movement around the work area and probably install air conditioning to cater for the extremely hot or cold seasons. As these basic needs are met, they also start upgrading. At this point, they also feel that social and psychological needs need to be met. They start: believing in themselves and therefore, their self-esteem becomes distinct, wanting to be accepted socially, shown appreciation in the work place and they start feeling a strong sense of self-actualization to be able to develop as an employee (Luvisangra, 2012). This entire process brings about job satisfaction and increases production for the company. Incentives are also crucial for job satisfaction. Any employee who works tremendously hard in their workplace deserves to be appreciated. Incentives can be in the form of gifts, shopping vouchers, trips or the title of employee of the month (University of Alberta, 2012). Evaluations of whether or not the employees are satisfied should be conducted often. These evaluations are audits. There are many audits from financial; operational to follow up audits, but the best is the type that ensures that the emotions going round in the work place are unveiled, without necessarily identifying the names of the employees who feel a certain way. Confidentiality should be of the essence when conducting these evaluations. Audits are also supremely pertinent to examine whether security measures are effectual in the work place. The different forms of management can also affect job satisfaction considerably. There are two types of viewpoints that stand out; the classical and behavioral viewpoints. While classical management is divided into

The Changing Role of Probation Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Changing Role of Probation - Coursework Example However, in case a juvenile delinquent is confined in a detention center, he or she loses all sorts of teenage formalities. Additionally, teenagers encounter challenges while catching up with their education after they are released from detention centers. They deem it nonessential to go back to school. As such, it is true that GPS trackers play a vital role with regard to allowing teens to participate in normal life activities freely (Hess & Orthmann, 2011). On the contrary, various concerns have been raised about the effects GPS tracking devices on the offender’s privacy rights. Some experts stipulate that the GPS tracking technology creates a situation where the offender’s home serves as his prison. However, others fear that prevalent use of GPS tracking systems could result to a society there government authorities strictly monitor the movement of the citizens. However, these concerns are rarely discussed because GPS tracking is imposed with full consent of the participant. Therefore, it is true that GPS devices to not violate privacy rights of juvenile delinquents (Hess & Orthmann,

Roles of Emotional Appeals in Decision-making Essay

Roles of Emotional Appeals in Decision-making - Essay Example While some individuals argue that we make decisions through critical thinking, most of our decisions are made depending on our emotions (Fill, 2009, p. 19). Our moods and feeling towards particular ideas or items critically shape the decisions we make concerning that idea. For instance, a business manager coming to work loaded with stress from family issues is likely to spend the whole day making poor and inaccurate decisions at work. In addition, the same manager is likely to change the way he or she is treating people on that particular day. Therefore, emotions also determine how we relate with other people in our daily lives. Emotional appeals have the same effect in the business environment. They influence the way in which both business and customers make their decisions. Therefore, emotions have a significant impact on the effect of marketing on the customers (Fill, 2009, p. 20). While the business may market its products effectively, it may not succeed in attracting the attenti on of the customers. A business should take into consideration the emotions of its customers when advertising its products. This is because marketing triggers different emotions in the customers. Customers tend to develop different emotions and feelings towards a product or a service depending on the way it has been advertised (O'Shaughnessy & O'Shaughnessy, 2003, p. 10). ... different factors that might trigger emotional responses in customers, thus manipulating the way in which customers make their decisions (Albers-Miller & Stafford,  1999, p. 42). Colour Colour is a very significant factor that greatly affects the way in which customers perceive different products and services. Individuals have different attitudes and notions towards different colours. Other individuals also associate different colours with different types of issues. For instance, most people in the society associate black colour with evil. On the other hand, white colour is associated with purity and peace. Therefore, individuals will develop different feelings when they see black colour being used in a certain advertisement. For instance, a consumer that associates black with evil will perceive products being advertised using the colour as having a certain vice. Therefore, such a consumer will not even spend time to think of purchasing such a product. The decision of whether to bu y the product will entirely depend on the colour that has been used (Albers-Miller & Stafford,  1999, p. 43). On the other hand, the same customer may be triggered to purchase a product that has been advertised using the white colour just because he or she associates white with peace and purity. Therefore, although the products advertised in black colour might be better than the one advertised in the white ones, the emotional appeals of the customer will force him or her to purchase the bad product. Therefore, basing on colour, organisations should assess their target market to check if it is conservative. This is because most interpretations of colour come mainly from conservative people. However, some people, especially women, also have an attitude towards colour. For instance, most women